Study 1
Theodos and colleagues (2016) used a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the Promotor Pathway Program in a sample of youths ages 14 to 24 years. Youths considered eligible for the Promotor Pathway Program were recruited between April 2010 and February 2013, through referrals from four Latin American Youth Center (LAYC) sites and from external sources such as government agencies, schools, and nonprofits. LAYC, the implementing agency for the program, provides youth- development programs aimed at improving the lives of low-income immigrant youths and youths of color, and their families. Following baseline assessments, eligible youths were randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. Each youth in the intervention group was assigned a promotor; those in the control group did not participate in the program, but had access to other services offered by LAYC. Promotors worked individually with each of their assigned youths to guide them through the program components.
In addition to a baseline assessment, youths completed surveys at 6, 12, and 18 months following baseline. Attempts were made at each time point to collect data from those no longer in the program, but still affiliated with the LAYC and from those no longer affiliated with LAYC. Surveys included questions about current schooling (e.g., “What kind of schooling or classes are you currently enrolled in?”), current employment (e.g., “Are you working at a job for pay now?”), changes in living situation (“In the last 6 months, did you sleep outside or in a shelter on any night because you did not have a place to live?”), and births (“In the last 6 months, did you or your partner give birth to a child?”). Youths also were asked to report on the frequency with which they engaged in a variety of delinquent behaviors over a 12-month period, including getting into a physical fight that required medical attention and carrying a weapon. Pearlin’s Mastery Scale was used to measure the degree to which youths felt in control of their lives and able to solve problems (e.g., “There is really no way I can solve some of the problems I have.” and “I have little control over the things that happen to me.”).
At baseline, the average age of participants was 18 years, 24 percent were under 18, 56 percent were 18 to 21, and 20 percent were 22 or older. Fifty-six percent were Latino and 38 percent were Black. Fifty-two percent were male, 47 percent spoke Spanish at home, 31 percent had a child (42 percent for females and 20 percent for males). Eighty-four percent were enrolled in some form of education (47 percent in school and 37 percent in GED classes), 33 percent reported that their highest grade completed was ninth grade or below, and 21 percent reported being employed. At baseline, significant proportions of participating youths reported risk factors related to housing stability (14 percent reported sleeping in a homeless shelter in the past 6 months), mental health challenges (21 percent reported a mental health diagnosis), delinquency (23 percent reported a recent arrest), and unhealthy behaviors (25 percent reported using marijuana in the past 4 weeks).
There were no statistically significant differences between youths in the intervention and control groups at baseline on any of the demographic characteristics or risk factors assessed, except that a higher percentage of youths in the intervention group reported selling marijuana in the last 12 months. At baseline, 476 youths completed the survey (165 in the intervention group and 311 in the control group); 388 youths completed the 6-month survey (144 in the intervention group and 244 in the control group), 371 youths completed the 12-month survey (137 in the intervention group and 234 in the control group), and 363 completed the 18-month survey (132 in the intervention group and 231 in the control group). There were no statistically significant differences in baseline characteristics between youths who did and did not participate in each of the survey waves.
Ninety-four percent of the intervention group engaged with their Promotor at least once, 46 percent had 45 or more total contacts with their Promotor during the 18-month period, and the average number of contacts per month was 3.5. Furthermore, 63 percent of the contacts occurred in person, and 64 percent of Promotor-youth matches lasted 16 or more months. Although the average number of contacts was similar for male and female participants, female participants who were highly engaged with their Promotors (45 or more contacts) had greater numbers of contacts than did their male counterparts (e.g., 42 percent of female participants had 60 or more total contacts, compared with 25 percent of males). The total number of contacts and contacts per month did not differ by participant race/ethnicity. Participants with children were more likely to have had over 45 contacts with their Promotor. At 18 months, intervention group participants were more likely than control group participants to have participated in non-Promotor LAYC services related to education, workforce, and case management. Similarly, at 18 months, intervention group youths were more likely than control group youths to have received non-LAYC services related to mental health counseling, substance use, public assistance, housing, and legal problems.
Effects of the program on outcomes were evaluated using regression analyses with an intent-to-treat (ITT) framework. Analyses controlled for baseline scores on the outcome and on the following baseline covariates: gender; age; ethnicity (Latino or not); being a parent; whether ever used marijuana; and whether ever drank; perceived mastery score; adult support score; and a delinquency score based on involvement in the following eight behaviors in the previous 12 months: 1) carrying a weapon, 2) spraying graffiti/damaged property, 3) getting into a fight that required medical attention, 4) stealing or attempting to steal item worth more than $50, 5) breaking or trying to break into a building, 6) selling marijuana, 7) selling hard drugs, and 8) being a member of a gang or crew.
