Program Profile: Thinking for a Change

This is a cognitive–behavioral curriculum developed by the National Institute of Corrections, which was designed to change the criminogenic thinking of persons convicted of a crime. The program includes cognitive restructuring, social skills development, and development of problem-solving skills. The program is rated Promising. Persons in the treatment group were found to be less likely to recidivate, compared with those in the control group, at the 6-month follow-up. This difference was statist

A Promising rating implies that implementing the program may result in the intended outcome(s).

Program Goals

Thinking for a Change (T4C) is a cognitive–behavioral curriculum developed by the National Institute of Corrections that concentrates on changing the criminogenic thinking of persons convicted of an offense. T4C is a cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) program that includes cognitive restructuring, social skills development, and the development of problem-solving skills.

Target Population

The program may be delivered to a variety of persons convicted of a crime , including adults and juveniles, those on probation, incarcerated persons in prison or jail inmates, individuals in aftercare or on parole (however, studies that have examined program effectiveness of T4C so far have included only samples of adults who are on probation).

Program Theory

T4C combines cognitive restructuring theory and cognitive skills theory to help individuals take control of their lives by taking control of their thinking (Bush, et al. 2011). The foundation of T4C is the use of CBT principles throughout the group sessions. There is an extensive body of research that shows cognitive–behavioral programming significantly reduces recidivism of convicted of an offense (Landenberger and Lipsey 2005).

Program Components

T4C stresses interpersonal communication skills development and confronts thought patterns that can lead to problematic behaviors. The program has three components: cognitive self-change, social skills, and problem-solving skills. Lessons on cognitive self-change provide participants with a thorough process for self-reflection concentrated on uncovering antisocial thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. Social skills lessons prepare participants to engage in prosocial interactions based on self-understanding and awareness of the impact that their actions may have on others. Finally, problem-solving skills integrate the two other components and provide participants with a step-by-step process to address challenges and stressful situations they may encounter.

The program is divided into 25 lessons (each lasting approximately 1 to 2 hours), with the capacity to extend the program indefinitely. The curriculum is designed to be implemented with small groups of 8 to 12. Each lesson teaches them important social skills (such as active listening and asking appropriate questions) as well as more complex restructuring techniques (such as recognizing the types of thinking that get them into trouble and understanding the feelings of others). Most sessions include didactic instruction, role-play illustrations of concepts, a review of previous lessons, and homework assignments in which participants practice the skills learned in the group lesson.

Examples of some of the lessons are Active Listening Skill; Thinking Controls Our Behavior; Paying Attention to Our Thinking; Recognize Risk; Use New Thinking; Understanding the Feelings of Others; Apologizing; Responding to Anger; Introduction to Problem Solving; Stop and Think; and State the Problem.

Study 1

The 2009 study by Lowenkamp and colleagues used a quasi-experimental design to examine the effectiveness of the Thinking for a Change (T4C) curriculum. The study looked at a “real world” test of T4C, because the curriculum was implemented by line staff in a community corrections agency, as opposed to being piloted by program developers. The community corrections agency was the Tippecanoe County (Indiana) probation department. They were referred to the T4C program from the court (as a condition of their probation sentence) or from their probation officer as a sanction for violation behavior.

The study sample included 217 individuals placed on probation for a felony offense. There were 121 treatment cases and 96 comparison cases. To be included in the treatment group, those on probation needed to have been referred to T4C and must have attended at least one session. The comparison group included those placed on probation during the same period but who were not referred to T4C. Cases were also required to have at least a 6-month follow-up period to be included in the study. For the treatment group, the 6-month follow-up began once they left the T4C program, while the control group follow-up period was based on the time they began probation. The overall study sample was 71 percent male and 84 percent white, and on average was 33.5 years old. There were no significant differences between the groups.

The primary outcome of interest was recidivism. Recidivism was defined as a dichotomous variable, indicating whether the person received an arrest for a new criminal charge (misdemeanor or felony offense). Data was retrieved from county and local databases. However, the measure of recidivism was limited to offenses that were reported only in Tippecanoe County.

A risk measure was created for each individual, based on factors used in prior analyses by the study authors. Each person was coded on seven factors based on file information. These factors included prior arrests, prior prison commitments, prior community supervision violations, prior drug problems, prior alcohol problems, whether they were employed at arrest, and education. These factors were summed together to give a risk score that ranged from 0 to 7, and three categories (low, moderate, and high risk) were created based on the composite scores.

Bivariate analysis compared differences between the treatment and control groups in the proportion of individuals who recidivated. A multivariate model was developed to adjust for potential confounding factors, such as significant differences between the groups in risk scores and time-at-risk at baseline. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds of recidivism for both groups. Based on the results of these models, the recidivism rates were adjusted for the treatment and control groups. The authors conducted subgroup analyses on age and risk category.

Information about training opportunities for facilitators of Thinking for a Change is available on the National Institute of Corrections (NIC) website, which provides Thinking for a Change (T4C) Basic Facilitator and Advanced Practicum (Train the Trainer in T4C) training.

There is a scripted manual available for free on the NIC Web site. The manual explicitly states the content and objectives of each of the sessions and has gone through numerous revisions over the years. 

Subgroup Analysis

Lowenkamp and colleagues (2003) conducted subgroup analyses on age and risk category and group membership. Findings indicated that across groups, younger and higher risk persons were more likely to be arrested for a new offense during the follow-up period, compared with older and lower risk individuals. These differences were statistically significant.

These sources were used in the development of the program profile:

These sources were used in the development of the program profile:

Following are CrimeSolutions-rated programs that are related to this practice:

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for Adults at Moderate- and High-Risk of Offending

This is a problem-focused, therapeutic approach that attempts to help people identify and change dysfunctional beliefs, thoughts, and patterns of behavior that contribute to their problems. For adults, CBT teaches them how cognitive deficits, distortion, and flawed thinking processes can lead to criminal behavior. The practice is rated Promising for reducing crime committed by moderate- and high-risk adults.

Evidence Ratings for Outcomes

Crime & Delinquency - Multiple crime/offense types

Adult Reentry Programs

This practice involves correctional programs that focus on the transition of individuals from prison into the community. Reentry programs involve treatment or services that have been initiated while the individual is in custody and a follow-up component after the individual is released. The practice is rated Promising for reducing recidivism.

Evidence Ratings for Outcomes

Crime & Delinquency - Multiple crime/offense types

Rehabilitation Programs for Adults Convicted of a Crime

This practice includes programs that are designed to reduce recidivism among adults by improving their behaviors, skills, mental health, social functioning, and access to education and employment. They may become participants in rehabilitation programs during multiple points in their involvement with the criminal justice system. This practice is rated Promising for reducing recidivism among adults who have been convicted of an offense.

Evidence Ratings for Outcomes

Crime & Delinquency - Multiple crime/offense types

Why might a practice's outcome ratings differ from the ratings of specific programs encompassed by that practice?